Prosper Mérimée (1803-1870) was a French man of letters perhaps remembered best today for his novel Carmen (1845) on which the opera Carmen was based. Of particular interest to the Ukrainian Archive is his many translations from the Russian classics, which served to make Russian literature known in France, and which deepened his understanding of Slavic culture and history. Below are quoted passages concerning Bohdan Khmelnytsky from Mérimée's Les Cosaques d'Autrefois or The Cossacks of Yore (1865), a work that is primarily a biography of Bohdan Khmelnytsky, but which has attached a shorter biography of Stenka Razine.
As Mérimée's account presents dialogues and descriptions of which no record exists, then his work must, I suppose, be considered to be historical fiction, unless there is some less deprecating category that I don't know about that his work could be placed into. Although Mérimée demonstrates himself to be capable of a healthy incredulity (see especially the last passage quoted below), he nevertheless appears to accept the veracity of many events which are possibly fabrications, and at least one statistic which is a known fabrication — the statistic of more than 100,000 Jews killed in the course of the Khmelnytsky rebellion, which estimate he attributes to "a rabbi" — undoubtedly Nathan Hanover. Given that Mérimée's book is historical fiction, and given that he may have been more interested in writing a good story than in getting at the truth, is there much value in reading him on the subject of Bohdan Khmelnytsky?
There may be at least the following three benefits to reading Mérimée on Khmelnytsky:
One benefit may be that in seeing what generalizations or conclusions others have allowed themselves to arrive at, an impartial historian who aspires to approach truth may be awakened to a wider selection of interpretations that he can choose from to account for the raw data that he accumulates.
A second benefit may be as a measure of popular opinion on the topic of Bohdan Khmelnytsky, which can be traced over time for the purpose of noting changes. Upon reading Mérimée, it will become evident that his interpretation is one that largely prevailed for some three centuries — from the time of Khmelnytsky up until the end of the Second World War — at which point it became subject to a gratuitous revision which it is one of the goals of the Ukrainian Archive to undo.
A third benefit may be that in his statement of his own beliefs and disbeliefs, Mérimée offers further evidence concerning the readiness of professional storytellers — among whom some who call themselves historians would more accurately be categorized — to credit all scenes which leave indelible impressions, even when these scenes are passed along to them by other storytellers who have impugned their own credibility. In the eagerness to be credited with having passed along a great story, the credibility of the origin is overlooked. This is the phenomenon that Mérimée's account further illustrates.
The translation into English below is a first approximation, concerning which any corrections will be appreciated. Please send suggestions to [email protected]
A cette époque, en 1646, l'Ukraine était agitée par un mécontentemement sourd, qui présageait une explosion violente et prochaine. Les libertés du pays et sa foi religieuse souffraient d'incessantes atteintes de la part des gouverneurs polonais. Le peuple était accablé de corvées et d'exactions de toute espèce par les gentilshommes établis dans l'Ukraine où ils avaient obtenu des terres. Les Russiens, et particulièrement les cosaques, prétendaient en avoir seuls chassé les infidèles, et leurs efforts n'avaient eu d'autre résultat que de les faire changer de maîtres. Les gentilshommes polonais, propriétaires de presque tout le pays, étaient considérés par les paysans comme des étrangers et des usurpateurs. Ils parlaient une autre langue que leurs vassaux, et professaient une autre religion. Pleins de mépris pour les Russiens et pour leurs croyances, ils les traitaient, en effet, avec la dernière dureté. Quelques-uns, animés d'un zèle religieux, abattaient les églises grecques, et cherchaient par la violence à faire des conversions. De tous côtés s'élevaient des monastères catholiques; des prêtres, soutenus par des soldats, parcouraient les campagnes pour ramener les schismatiques au giron de l'église, et trop souvent joignaient à leurs prédictions des menaces et des voies de fait. (pp. 7-8) |
At this time, in 1646, Ukraine was agitated by a deep discontent, which presaged a violent and imminent explosion. The liberty of the country and its religious faith suffered from incessant encroachments on the part of the ruling Poles. The people were oppressed with corvées [statute labor] and demands of all kinds by the gentry in Ukraine where they had obtained land. The Rus [Ukrainians], and especially the Cossacks, claimed to have driven away the infidels [invading Europe from the East] by themselves, and that their efforts had brought them no greater benefit than a change of masters. The Polish gentry, owners of almost the entire country, were viewed by the villagers as foreigners and usurpers. They spoke a language different from their vassals, and professed a different religion. Full of contempt for the Rus and for their beliefs, they treated them, in effect, with the utmost harshness. Some among them [among the Polish gentry], animated by religious fervor, destroyed Orthodox churches, and attempted by violence to produce conversions. On all sides sprang up Catholic monasteries; Catholic priests, supported by soldiers, scoured the countryside to bring back apostates to the bosom of the church, and very often added threats and assaults to their earlier pronouncements. (pp. 7-8) |
Voici en quels termes l'ingénieur français Beauplan, qui avait été au service de Vladislas jusqu'à la morte de ce prince, en 1648, parle de la condition des petits Russiens. Étranger aux passions nationales des Polonais et des cosaques, son témoignage aura le mérite de l'impartialité: |
Below are the words in which the engineer Beauplan, who was in the service of Vladislas until the death of that prince in 1648, speaks of the condition of the little Russians [Ukrainians]. Stranger to the national passions of both the Poles and the Cossacks, his testimony will have the merit of impartiality: |
Sa ferme, qui était d'un revenu considérable, était convoitée par un certain Czaplinski, gentilhomme polonais, sous-staroste de Tchighirine et l'âme damnée du staroste Koniepolski, fils de celui qui avait fait la donation au père de Chmielnicki; en outre, Czaplinski avait un grief personnel contre Chmielnicki, son rival heureux auprès d'une jeune dame du pays qu'il venait d'épouser en secondes noces. |
His farm, which brought considerable revenue, was coveted by a certain Czaplinski, of Polish nobility, under-starosta [second in command to the Polish official] Tchighirine and henchman to Koniepolski, son of him who bestowed the farm upon Khmelnytsky's father; beyond that, Czaplinski had a personnal greivance against Khmelnytsky, his rival for a young country lady whom the widower Khmelnytsky had just married. |
«Les Polonais, dit-il, nous ont livrés en esclaves à la maudite engeance des Juifs. Regardez-moi, moi l'auditeur générale de l'armée des Zaporogues, moi vieux cosaque. Je n'aspirais qu'á vivre tranquille après avoir combattu pour eux. Ils m'ont pris ma maison, usurpé mes biens, enlevé ma femme. Ils ont tué mon fils, ils viennent de me voler jusqu'à mon cheval. Ils m'ont condamné à mort, je viens vous demander asile.» (pp. 24-25) |
"The Poles," said he, "have turned us into slaves to the accursed mob of Jews. Look at me, me the auditor-general of the Zaporozhian army, me the old Cossack. I hoped only to live in peace after having fought for them. They have taken my house, stolen my possessions, carried off my wife. They have killed my son, they have just stolen even my horse. They have sentenced me to death, I come to ask you for asylum." (pp. 24-25) |
Chmielnicki et les Anciens parmi les Zaporogues se préoccupaient beaucoup plus, selon toute apparence, des antiques priviléges des cosaques que de l'affranchissement des paysans; mais les victoires des Eaux-Jaunes et de Korsun avaient éveillé dans toutes les provinces méridionales l'idée d'une indépendance absolue. Plus de maîtres, plus d'étrangers, l'ancienne religion, ce fut le cri général partout où les paysans appartenaient à la communion grecque. Les popes et les évêques furent les premiers à souffler le feu de la révolte et à prêcher la vengeance contre les oppresseurs de la foi orthodoxe, c'est-à-dire contre les catholiques et les juifs. Les cosaques, soldats de profession, ne s'étaient pas montrés cruels, après la victoire, envers d'autres soldats dont ils estimaient la bravoure; mais les paysans russiens, esclaves révoltés et sectaires fanatiques, furent sans pitié lorsque le sort des armes les favorisa. Tandis que Chmielnicki s'appliquait à compléter ses régiments avec des hommes habitués à la guerre, des aventuriers hardis et féroces se mettaient à la tête des serfs insurgés. Armés de faux emmanchées à revers, de piques et de bâtons, ils saccageaient les maisons isolêes, massacraient sans merci tous les Polonais, tous les catholiques, tous les juifs qui leur tombaient entre les mains. Les juifs leur étaient particulièrement odieux. En général, l'intendant ou l'homme d'affaires d'un pane polonais était un juif. Son industrie ordinaire était d'avancer de l'argent à son maître et d'en obtenir, pour se rembourser, l'autorisation de pressurer les paysans. Les Russiens attribuaient aux juifs toutes les exactions, toutes les violences dont ils étaient victimes. Leur vengeance fut horrible. En quelques semaines maint château fut détruit, maint village brûlé, plusieurs villes importantes surprises et cruellement saccagées. Les plus féroces bandits, les plus ingénieux à inventer des supplices atroces étaient nommés par acclamation chefs de ces bandes insurgées, qui s'appelaient Haïdamaks, d'un mot tartare qui signifie, je crois, partisans; sans doute les cosaques n'eussent pas souffert que cette populace furieuse se mêlât à leurs rangs et prît leur nom. Un certain Morosenko, dont les paysans de la Volhynie conservent encore la mémoire, arrachait une lanière de peau autour du col des femmes polonaises ou juives qu'il rencontrait, c'est ce qu'il appelait leur faire cadeau d'un ruban rouge. Ganja, un des colonels de Chmielnicki, l'avait quitté pour se mettre à la tête des insurgés de la Podolie. S'étant emparé par trahison de la ville de Nemirof, il y massacra tous les gentilshommes et tous les juifs, ces derniers au nombre de six mille. Le château de Nesterow, où s'étaient réfugiées la plupart des familles nobles de Podolie, essaya de résister. Ganja avait quelques canons d'un trop faible calibre pour faire brèche aux ramparts, mais qui détruisaient les toits des maisons et ne laissaient aucun repos aux assiégées. Ils demandèrent à traiter et offrirent une rançon. Les Haïdamaks répondirent qu'ils accepteraient une rançon pour les Polonais, mais non pour les juifs. «Ce sont les ennemis mortels, disaient-ils, et nous ne retirerons que si vous nous les livrez.» Après quelque hésitation, les Polonais expulsèrent les juifs du château. Préparés au sort qui les attendait, les malheureux israélites sortirent des remparts avec leurs femmes et leurs enfants, invoquant la vengeance divine contre les lâches qui les envoyaient à la mort. On dit que le massacre dura trois jours, accompangné d'épouvantables cruautés. Las de tuer, les insurgés reçurent la rançcon des Polonais et s'éloignèrent; mais, dès le lendemain, survint un autre chef de bande, qui saccagea le château et égorgea ce qui restait de ses habitants. |
Khmelnytsky and the elders among the Zaporozhians occupied themselves much more, according to all appearances, with restoring former privileges of the Cossacks than with the emancipation of the peasants; the victories of Yellow Waters and of Korsun had awakened in all the southern provinces the idea of absolute independence. No more masters, no more foreigners, a return to the old religion — this was the general cry everywhere of the peasants that belonged to the Orthodox faith. Their popes and their bishops were the first to fan the flames of revolt and to preach vengeance against the oppressors of the Orthodox faith, that is to say, against the Catholics and the Jews. The Cossacks, professional soldiers, were not cruel after victory towards other soldiers whose courage they admired; but the Rus peasants, slaves in rebellion, and fanatical sectarians were without pity when the outcome of battle favored them. While Khmelnytsky tried to fill his regiments with men habituated to war, bold and fierce adventurers placed themselves at the head of the insurgent serfs. Armed with scythes, pikes, and cudgels, they sacked isolated houses, massacred without mercy all Poles, all Catholics, and all Jews that fell into their hands. The Jews were particularly odious to them. In general, the steward or the man of affairs of a Polish pan [nobleman] was a Jew. Their usual practice was to lend money to their master and to obtain from him, in order to recompense themselves, the authority to squeeze the peasants. The Rus blamed the Jews for all exactions, all the violences of which they were the victims. Their vengeance was horrible. In a few weeks, many estates were destroyed, many villages burned, several important towns taken by surprise and cruelly sacked. The most ferocious bandits, the most ingenious at inventing atrocious tortures, were named by acclamation as chiefs of the insurgent bands, who called themselves Haidamaks, from a Tartar word which means, I think, partisans; without doubt, the Cossacks were unwilling to tolerate that this furious populace mingled in their ranks and took their name. A certain Morosenko, whose memory the peasants of Volhynia still consecrate, tore off a strip of skin from around the neck of Polish or Jewish women that he encountered, which was what he called making them a present of a red ribbon. Ganja, one of Khmelnytsky's colonels, left him in order to place himself at the head of the insurgents of Podolia. Having seized the town of Nemirof by treason, he massacred there all noblemen and all Jews, the latter numbering six thousand. The castle of Nesterow, where the majority of the noble families of Podolia had fled, attempted to resist. Ganja had some cannons of too small a calibre to breach the ramparts, but which destroyed the roofs of houses, and which gave no rest to the beseiged. They asked to negotiate, and offered a ransom. The Haidamaks replied that they would accept a ransom for the Poles, but not for the Jews. "They are our mortal enemies," they said, "and we will not withdraw unless you hand them over to us." After some hesitation, the Poles expelled the Jews from the castle. Prepared for the outcome that awaited them, the unfortunate Israelites emerged from the ramparts with their wives and their children, invoking divine retribution against the cowards who sent them to their deaths. It is said that the massacre lasted three days, accompanied by horrible cruelties. Tired of killing, the insurgents accepted the ransom for the Poles and left; but on the very next day there arrived another leader of a band who sacked the castle and cut the throats of what remained of the inhabitants. |
[I]l était sans pitié pour ses malheureux vassaux. (p. 59) |
He was without pity for his unfortunate vassals. (p. 59) |
Au surplus le sang d'un serf était pour lui comme de l'eau [...]. (p. 59) |
Moreover, the blood of a serf carried no more significance for him than water [...]. (p. 59) |
Pour toute réponse Wiszniowiecki fit empaler les porteurs du message. (p. 60) |
Wiszniowiecki's only reply was to have the bearers of the message impaled. (p. 60) |
Par la rapidité de ses marches et l'habileté de ses manoeuvres, il surprit plusieurs rassemblements de paysans et en fit un horrible carnage. Imiter, surpasser même les cruautés des Haïdamaks, c'était, pensait-il, faire justice; mais ni les terribles représailles qu'il exerçait, ni son courage, ni ses talents militaires ne pouvaient arrêter le soulèvement de tout un peuple. (pp. 60-61) |
By the rapidity of his marches and the skilfulness of his maneuvres, he surprised many gatherings of peasants, and made of them a horrible carnage. Imitating, even surpassing, the cruelties of the Haidamaks, this was, he thought, imposing justice; but neither the terrible reprisals which he practised, nor his courage, nor his military talents were able to stop the uprising of a whole people. (pp. 60-61) |
Quelque idée qu'on se fasse de la méchanceté humaine, quelque persuadé qu'on soit que tous les crimes sont possibles à une populace ignorante et fanatique, croira-t-on, sur le témoignage des contemporains, aux immenses massacres qu'ils attribuent à ce chef sanguinaire? Ils rapportent qu'à la prise de Bar, Krivonoss fit écorcher vivants 15,000 juifs. Credat Judaeus Apella. Que des hommes soient assez enragés pour imaginer pareil supplice, il faut bien l'admettre. En 1610, les bouchers de Paris offrirent au Parlement d'écorcher Ravaillac, si soigneusement, qu'ils s'engageaient à le fair vivre trois jours. Mais que, dans une ville prise d'assaut, on écorche 15,000 personnes, je déclare le fait impossible, non pas à la férocité, mais à la patience des plus stupides parmi les sauvages. (pp. 61-62) |
Whatever idea one might have concerning human evil, however persuaded one might be that all crimes are possible to an ignorant and fanatical people, can one bring oneself to believe the testimony of contemporaries of the immense massacres which they attribute to this bloody leader [Krivonoss]? They relate that at the taking of Bar, Krivonoss had 15,000 Jews skinned. Credat Judaeus Apella. That men could be enraged enough to devise such a form of torture, it is indeed necessary to admit. In 1610, the butchers of Paris made an offer to Parliament to skin Ravaillac so carefully that they guaranteed to keep him alive three days. But that, in a town taken by assault, they skinned 15,000 people, I declare this deed impossible, not on account of insufficient ferocity, but on account of the lack of patience of the stupidest among the savages. (pp.61-62). |